Tolerance.
Principal Foundation of the Cosmopolitan Society of Zanzibar.
By Mohamed Ahmed Saleh
For a
substantial number of people, notably in the northern hemisphere, the name Zanzibar sounds mythical
and makes people dream. However, in reality, it has a
physical existence and a particular place in the world map. It is an island
country, which consists of Unguja and Pemba islands and a multitude of other
islets (approximately fifty). The archipelago has an average area of 2 460
square kilometres and almost
one million of inhabitants. Zanzibar lies in the north western part of the Indian Ocean about 40 miles off the shore of the African
continent, at 6 degrees of latitude south of Equator. Zanzibar was for a long time an important
island metropolis whose name became legendary and was very often confounded
with the whole region. For instance, the Arabs called the eastern coast of Africa bar of the Zangh, meaning coast of
the black people. In Arabic it became Zinjbar and later Zanjibar,
a name that was used by navigators and geographers – somewhat loosely – to
connote the island, the archipelago and, in early documents the entire East
African coast.
The
geographic situation of Zanzibar could be
compared with countries and cities such as Hong Kong,
Singapore, Shanghai,
in South East Asia, Bombay, Cape
Town, Aden, Malta, and Gibraltar.
These countries and cities, given sound policies, because of their strategic
position, always benefit from whatever the prevailing world economic trend.
Zanzibar’s geographic situation, located “off shore” at the crossroad of
maritime world and at the proximity of hinterland, for many centuries enabled
Zanzibaris to play a role of middlemen in the commercial exchanges in the
region, and in the process benefit from the civilizing influence of the
international maritime expansion. Professor Abdul Sheriff, a well known and
respected Zanzibari historian, is very clear in this sense: “the Swahili (Zanzibar) history is
about adaptation and incorporation. We have always been middlemen – between the
land and the sea, the producers and the buyers, the African and the Arabian.
That is not a concern; it is our strength”.
This is why, Zanzibar
remains to date, in many ways, very much a product of an ancient pattern of
maritime trade and settlement.
A SEAFARING AND MERCHANT PEOPLE
Geographically and
culturally, Zanzibar belongs to that
string of islands which extends all along the east African coast, from Lamu to
Comoros, where for many centuries the Swahili culture and civilisation took
shape and flourished. This civilisation which developed around the
City-States, trading posts, ports or islands, was based on commercial maritime
activities, conducted principally between the peoples from the two continents
of Indian ocean basin : Africa and Asia.
Zanzibar not only played a crucial role in the development process of this
mercantile civilization, but it had also constituted an important human bridge
between these two continents of the Indian ocean basin. In its prime Zanzibar
was among a string of ports along the East African coast that evolved into
powerful City States as they grew rich from Indian ocean trade. Those were the days when it was commonly said “if
you play the flute at Zanzibar, all Africa as far as the Lakes dances”.
As one of
the former important City-States in the Swahili World, Zanzibar’s history was essentially written by
the monsoon winds,
which, for centuries, propelled the dhows to and from the two continents. From November to
February, the northeast monsoon, the kaskazi, brought traders from Arabia, Persia
and India with products such
as dates, whale oil, carpets, incense, pots, glassware and clothes, as well as
porcelains from China.
From June to September the southwest monsoon, the kusi, brought vessels
from the south and returned the others to their home ports north and east,
around and across the Indian ocean carrying with them ivory, mangrove poles,
spices, coconuts, tortoise, cowries, shells and sometimes even slaves, captured
from the interior of the continent. In the course of these maritime
activities, people from Africa and Asia were brought together through not only
commercial and cultural exchanges but also intermarriage. Zanzibar developed
into an important melting pot, where migrants from Arabian peninsular,
particularly from Oman and Yemen, and migrants from Persian Gulf, especially
from Shiraz province of Iran, were integrated into Zanzibari society. It is
interesting to note here that shirazi identity remained to date one of the
major components of Zanzibari Swahili identity.
A substantial number of Zanzibari
indigenous people claim to be descendants from the ancestors from Shiraz, ancient capital of Persia. People from Indian sub continent
also very early took part in this human construction. People from other parts
of the globe, whether, initially, they were invaders or merchants, were also
integrated in the society and ultimately became part of the social, cultural as
well as political construction underlying Zanzibari identity and nationalism.
This connote one of the important characteristics of Zanzibari as “a
seafaring and merchant people, nurtured by contact”.
It was through the interplay of different
elements of populations, languages and customs, the mingling of blood and ideas
that permeated every aspect of life that led to the development of Zanzibari
identity and culture. With all its complexities, Zanzibar
emerged as one of the major plural societies of East
Africa, composed of a large diversity of communities. Despite of
socio-economic contradictions prevailing in the society, notably in terms of
class and status, Zanzibar remained one of the few plural societies in Africa
that have been successful in crystallising various diverse cultural communities
into a single all-encompassing culture. Zanzibari culture is representative of
a very rich repertoire with a number of compartments within which one can
identify different origins in what is now a homogenous Zanzibari Swahili
culture. The various Zanzibari communities were further cemented together by
their linguistic and religious unity.
Modern Zanzibari identity is primarily
based on the Kiswahili language and the culture associated with it. Bantu by
its grammatical structure, Kiswahili language has incorporated in its
vocabulary more than fifty percent of words of foreign origin, particularly of
oriental background.
Kiswahili is the national and official language of the country. It is the
mother-tongue of all Zanzibaris and the variant local dialect (kiunguja),
spoken in Zanzibar
town, served as the basis of standard
Kiswahili. It is one of the most important unifying force in Zanzibar and beyond its boundaries. The
common language helped to cement the communities and accelerated the process of
awareness of a common belonging and a common destiny; endowing Zanzibaris with
a healthy and wealthy national consciousness. Non ethnic language, a language
of trade, Kiswahili remained to date, the richest and the most important lingua
franca in East Africa. It is the second
largest spoken language in Africa after
Arabic. It is the language of tolerance whose evolution was very much
determined by the adaptation and integration of different vocabulary from
different elements of populations which compose the present Zanzibari society.
This is why the concept of tolerance in this language can be expressed in
different ways. There are three words which express the notion of tolerance in
Kiswahili: kuvumiliana, kustahamiliana, and kuchukuliana.
The first two words kuvumiliana and kustahamiliana are synonymous
and could only be distinguished by their lexical origin. The former is of
African origin and the latter of Arabic origin. Both of them revolve around the
question of patience. Patience is one of the source of imani (faith,
uprightness and integrity), reinforcing the notion of tolerance. However, the
third word kuchukuliana seems to be larger and seems to best represent
the concept of tolerance. It puts more emphasis in its action on the question
of consideration, and incite people to be considerate towards one another.
As we progress we will see that the concept of tolerance in Kiswahili, contrary
to other languages, does not have a negative connotation. It is a part and a
parcel of Zanzibari and Swahili mode of life.
TOLERANCE AS A TRADITIONAL VALUE
Islam is the religion of the majority of
Zanzibaris, representing more than 90% of the total population. It is one of
the important factors of inter-communal interaction. The majority of Zanzibaris
belong to the sunni branch of Islam, and are followers of Imam Shafii
school of thought. The two other branches of Islam are Kharijism (Ibadhism) and
Shiism. There are no fundamental contradictions between these different
branches of Islam in Zanzibar,
and hence, do not constitute any form of obstacle for inter-communal
integration. The majority of Zanzibaris believe in unity in diversity and see
in these different branches of Islam as well as the existence of other
religious confessions as a factor of enrichment rather than a deficit. It is
important to note here that Islam was never imposed by the sword in Zanzibar and in any other
East African coastal societies. It is a religion which arrived by the dhows and
developed through social and commercial contacts. The Swahili coast has been
part of Islamic World from the eleventh century. The earliest ruin identifiable
as a mosque is at Shanga, and the oldest known inscription on a mosque is the
Kufic one at Kizimkazi in the south of Zanzibar
island, dating from A.D 1106. Throughout its history Zanzibar has never experienced religious
intolerance at a community level, neither between Christians and Muslims nor
among Muslims of different obedience. Traditionally, the followers of the
Ibadhi and Sunni had less religious interaction, but today particularly for the
young generation they rarely express reservations with each other. They pray in
the same mosques and perform almost all religious functions together.
Some Zanzibaris allegorically compare this
prevailing situation in Zanzibar
with that of flowers which are varying in colours but in essence do not change
their nature, they remain flowers. An important number of Zanzibaris are also
active members of Suffi movements, turuq
(Islamic Brotherhood), i.e., mystical group or group of ecstatic
performance. The two most important
groups in Zanzibar
are Shadhiliyya Yashrutti and Qadiriyya. The former finds its origins in Palestine while the latter was introduced from Iraq. These
religious or mystical orders include men and women, performing their rituals
separately, meet for devotional purposes and attend funeral and other rites
involving their members. Their rituals consist of invocations and
supplications. They invoke the names of God and other supplications, following
a particular rhythm with over-breathing and other physical exercises that
induce trance and possession.
Although Islam and the Swahili language constitute the
cultural fundament of the islands’ social fabrics, other religions such as
Christianity (Catholics as well as protestants), Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism,
and Parsee Zoroastrians, as well as languages such as Hindi, Gujareti and
Arabic, coexisted peacefully and respectfully. Irrespective of individual
confessions, all Zanzibaris have always congregated together in celebrating
Prophet Muhammad’s birthday (Maulid),
Christmas, the Birthday of the Great Buddha as well as the Hindi Diwali.
Zanzibar has a
long tradition of religious tolerance. It is worth noting that more than a
century ago Seyyid Said bin Sultan
forbade his Muslim subjects to slaughter cows in the residential areas of
Hindus, few though they were, in deference to their religious sensitivities.
Communities of all religious denominations were free to follow their own laws
of marriage, divorce and inheritance. In 1860 Seyyid Majid bin Said bin Sultan,
a Muslim Sultan of Zanzibar allowed the French
Roman Catholic Mission from Reunion to settle
in the country and establish their religious and humanitarian activities
including building a Cathedral. Less than two decades later, in 1877 Seyyid
Barghash bin Said bin Sultan,
another Muslim Sultan of Zanzibar,
allowed the construction of Anglican Cathedral at the site of the old slave
market and provided the tower bell as a gift. The first University Mission to
Central Africa (UMCA) was established in Zanzibar
around the same period.
A true Zanzibari has always been a polyglot, with a
capacity of communicating at least in three different languages. S/he would
naturally be appreciative of a variety of music: african, oriental (arab and
indian) or western (jazz and classical). These different influences appear also
in the Zanzibari-Swahili music, taarab, which incorporates in its composition a
mixture of african, oriental and western melodies. The evolution of Zanzibaris
history and culture was very much marked by the liberty of movement of its
population and freedom of expression and press. More than 40 newspapers were
established in the country since the first newspaper in East
Africa, The Gazette, was established in 1892.
All these factors are a clear expression of Zanzibari traditional spirit of
openness and tolerance, which constituted the foundation stone of the
Cosmopolitan Society of Zanzibar. The Zanzibari traditional spirit of openness
and tolerance allowed the isles to be an important meeting point for explorers
and missionaries in Africa. Burton,
Krapf, Livingstone, Stanley, and other western
explorers and missionaries set their journey inside African continent from Zanzibar.
This
spirit of tolerance, kuchukuliana, which in Kiswahili means mutual
understanding made the Zanzibari society a cultural mosaic, which has always
been open towards integrating not only traders but also invaders. Tolerance has
always been one of the major components of Zanzibari social and cultural values.
This concept has demonstrated in different periods of
Zanzibar history its crucial role in the cultural, social and political
processes leading towards the definition and the development of Zanzibari
identity and nationalism. Tolerance is
not only a concept of the Swahili language,
it is also and especially a mode of life and culture. It is a social system
which is developed and inculcated into the society through the observation of
different passage rites as well as religious and moral teachings, most of which
start right from the birth. It is
worth noting that non-islamic items of rituals, mila, which means
traditions in Kiswahili, were incorporated into the corpus of religious
behaviour. They form part of permitted Swahili religious practice.
Kuadhiniwa ‘a call for prayers’ to a new born is one
of the most important passage rites. This action consists of holding a new-born
while taking an orientation of the Mecca and say in his/her right ear the first
call for prayers (adhana), and then in his left ear the second call for the
prayers (iqama). This signifies that the child is born Muslim and will have to
follow the precepts of Islam. Religious and moral teachings are highly emphasizing on uaminifu
(honesty) and uadilifu (ethics),
which are the two major components of what is commonly known as imani,
(faith, uprightness and integrity). Imani presupposes constant effort to
surpass one’s ego and acquire a capacity of consideration and generosity in the
most positive way towards the others.
Kushindiliwa is another fundamental passage rite that
encourages in its teachings humility, humbleness, moderation and restrain from
greediness, over temptation and jealousy. The action takes place by putting a
thumb on the neck of a newborn while repeating to him/her that s/he has to be
humble in life, resist temptations and all what is beyond his/her means, and
should not be jealous or envious of others. These teachings, transmitted
through the kushindiliwa passage rite, have an important place in the
Swahili concept of tolerance.
They constitute a cornerstone on which other elements are relaying. In the
place of power games, the Swahili concept of Tolerance incites for a generalised humility, patience
and mutual consideration, which ultimately lead to a mutual understanding and
enrichment. Tolerance is a virtue, a value which implies open-mindedness and
total abandon of selfishness. It is a constant effort of consideration towards
one another as if it was a part of you. The difference with the “other” should not
be considered as a deficit, but on the contrary should be seen as an element of
enrichment, a common tool, which could eventually led to a mutual
understanding.
First hair shaving marks the end of the uterine life
of the child and provides an opportunity
of communion, around a feast, between family members, friends and neighbours.
Traditional teachings encourage good neighbourly relationships. Neighbours are
considered to be one’s second family. If charity always begins at home, in the
traditional teachings it is highly recommended that it should be extended to
one’s neighbours. This is why in the occasion of traditional or religious
festivities neighbours usually exchange meals. Circumcision
is another ritual which has a particular importance in the society. It
surpasses the physical sense of operation, i.e., the ritual consisting of
removing the prepuce: it marks the end of the cycle of perinatal ceremonies
and announces the effective entrance of the child into the social life of the
community. The passage rites reach their climax at the time of wedding
celebrations. The brides by accomplishing the most important tradition of the
Prophet, obtain a status of adults, and are considered as accomplished
persons. Weddings provide platform for
the demonstration of inter-communal solidarity. Members of extended families of
the brides, friends and neighbours interact together at the occasion of grand
feasts and of dances. The more numerous the participants, the more praise
worthy the marriage.
Hence, customary ceremonies play a crucial role in cementing Zanzibaris
communities together. They remain strong moments in the society, which provide
the Zanzibaris with the means of consolidating their affective and social ties.
It is an occasion for the exchange of gifts between individuals and different
traditional networks. These ceremonial exchanges provide a framework for the
development of social relationships.
Through
customary rites and moral teachings one is brought up into understanding life
in all its complexities and into believing in the universality of human race.
Very often moral teachings encourage the society to stretch out their hands and
to reach out to other peoples, other races; and to regard one another with the
same respect, affection and dignity, for they all belong to the same human
race. The Koran (and the Islamic Faith) is very explicit in its social
teachings and endows racial as well as cultural diversity with sacred status as
a divine creation: “O Mankind, we have created you male and female, and
appointed you nations and tribes so that you may know one another” (Koran
49; 13).
Regardless
of colour, creed or background, traditional teachings encourage people to judge
the other entirely on his/her merits. Multiracialism or multiculturalism should
be viewed as Nature’s way of harmonisation, for variety lends enchantment,
beauty and novelty. This is very well reflected in a poem entitled Our Colours,
by Shaaban Robert, a famous Swahili poet of our time:
Colour
is God’s ornament, far from being a demerit,
All
are the same whether they eat millet or wheat bread,
Eaters
of wheat and lentils, living and dead,
Colour
is God’s ornament, far from a mark of demerit
He
adorns the stars and the Heavens, roses and jasmines,
Colour
is God’s majesty and on the body it’s not uncleanness.
It
is neither a mark of bitterness, nor sin nor blemish,
Colour
is the beauty of the Perfect God Almighty.
Folk
tales, poetry and taarab music were three elements which played an important
role in the construction of the national symbols of Zanzibari culture. They
were the vehicles which have always helped to convey messages of peace and
tolerance. They have always propelled holistic values of love; of emotional
world of fantasy, and moral values which tend to teach that the good will
always triumph and the bad will always fail. They were the major weapons used
to fight obscurantism. This is why it was very common to hear people judging a
man not by his material wealth but by what s/he has in her/his brain, as a poet,
a jurist, or a teacher. Knowledge was the major aspect which allowed a person
to obtain that renown respect in the society which in Kiswahili is called heshima.
Zanzibar is by all standards a cultural community whose
development was made possible thanks to the spirit of tolerance. As an important component of Zanzibari
culture, tolerance played a vital role in merging together all the different
elements of Zanzibari society. By discouraging all kind of discriminations and
encouraging mutual understanding tolerance was an important source of strength
for Zanzibaris. It allowed them to be together as a people and survive
different invasions throughout the history. Today as yesterday Zanzibaris
future lies on their capacity to surpass the political manipulations which tend
to divide them along racial lines. There is no future for Zanzibaris out of
their Zanzibariness. This is clearly emphasised by Professor Sheriff “It has a history of invasions, and of
assimilations of the invaders in the integrated culture of Zanzibar. It is a cultural mosaic that has a
pattern and a meaning that would be lost if the pieces were separated and
identified individually as African, Arab, Indian, etc, it can only be
identified as Zanzibari”.
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